abdoud
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Introduction to Programmable Controllers
It's always good to get an overview of where designs have been and were they are going. To do this it's essential to get a bird's eye view of the concepts and processes that make the PLC so valuable in industrial control. Pitting PLCs against other control types will also serve to show the pros and cons for different applications.
A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC for short, is simply a special computer device used for industrial control systems. They are used in many industries such as oil refineries, manufacturing lines, conveyor systems and so on. Where ever there is a need to control devices the PLC provides a flexible way to "softwire" the components together.
The basic units have a CPU (a computer processor) that is dedicated to run one program that monitors a series of different inputs and logically manipulates the outputs for the desired control. They are meant to be very flexible in how they can be programmed while also providing the advantages of high reliability (no program crashes or mechanical failures), compact and economical over traditional control systems.
Consider something as simple as a switch that turns on a light. In this system with a flick of the switch the light would turn on or off. Beyond that though there is no more control. If your boss came along and said I want that light to turn on thirty seconds after the switch has been flipped, then you would need to buy a timer and do some rewiring. So it is time, labor and money for any little change.
Now consider the same device with a PLC in the middle. The switch is fed as an input into the PLC and the light is controlled by a PLC output. Implementing a delay in this system is easy since all that needs to be changed is the program in the PLC to use a delay timer.
This is a rather simple example but in a larger system with many switchs and lights (and a host of other devices) all interacting with each other this kind of flexibility is not only nice but imperitive. Hopefully a light bulb has now turned on over your head.
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a personal computer though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
So let’s start off by removing all our modules which leaves us with a naked PLC with only the power supply and the rack.
The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more modules. Like a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which allows the cards to communicate with the CPU. The power supply plugs into the rack as well and supplies a regulated DC power to other modules that plug into the rack. The most popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or 24 VDC sources.
The CPU
The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in the slot beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs based on the complexity needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating modes. In programming mode it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the process.
Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program over and over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time and involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based on these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly. The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000th of a second). The memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the I/O and providing a means to store values.
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the devices connect.
There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the type of input or output so the CPU can use it for it’s logic. It's simply a matter of determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the appropriate cards and then addressing them correctly in the CPUs program.
give a signal that is either on or off such as a pushbutton, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card converts a voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be anywhere from 0 to 20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be understood by the CPU. Examples of analog devices are pressure transducers, flow meters and thermocouples for temperature readings
Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output card either turns a device on or off such as lights, LEDs, small motors, and relays. An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU to it’s real world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0-10 VDC or 4-20mA and are used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure regulators and position controls.
In these modern times a PC with specially dedicated software from the PLC manufacturer is used to program a PLC. The most widely used form of programming is called ladder logic. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of words, to emulate the real world relay logic control, which is a relic from the PLC's history. These symbols are interconnected by lines to indicate the flow of current through relay like contacts and coils. Over the years the number of symbols has increased to provide a high level of functionality.
The completed program looks like a ladder but in actuality it represents an electrical circuit. The left and right rails indicate the positive and ground of a power supply. The rungs represent the wiring between the different components which in the case of a PLC are all in the virtual world of the CPU. So if you can understand how basic electrical circuits work then you can understand ladder logic.
In this simplest of examples a digital input (like a button connected to the first position on the card) when it is pressed turns on an output which energizes an indicator light.
The completed program is downloaded from the PC to the PLC using a special cable that’s connected to the front of the CPU. The CPU is then put into run mode so that it can start scanning the logic and controlling the outputs.
The early history of the PLC is fascinating. Imagine if you will a fifty foot long cabinet filled with relays whose function in life is to control a machine. Wires run in and out of the system as the relays click and clack to the logic. Now imagine there is a problem or a small design change and you have to figure it all out on paper and then shut down the machine, move some wires, add some relays, debug and do it all over again. Imagine the labor involved in the simplest of changes. This is the problem that faced the engineers at the Hydra-matic division of GM motors in the late 1960's.
Fortunately for them the prospect of computer control was rapidly becoming a reality for large corporations as themselves. So in 1968 the GM engineers developed a design criteria for a "standard machine controller". This early model simply had to replace relays but it also had to be:
This was a tall order in 1968 but four companies took on the challenge.
Not to be outdone, the powerhouse Allen-Bradley (all ready known for it's rheostats, relays and motor controls) purchased Information Instruments in 1969 and began development on this new technology. The early models (PDQ-II and PMC) were deemed to be too large and complex. By 1971 Odo Struger and Ernst Dummermuth had begun to develop a new concept known as the Bulletin 1774 PLC which would make them successful for years to come. Allen-Bradley termed their new device the "Programmable Logic Controller" (patent #3,942,158) over the then accepted term "Programmable Controller". The PLC terminology became the industry standard especially when PC became associated with personal computers.
A PLC is not the only choice for controlling a process. Sticking with only basic relays may be of a benefit depending upon your application. Yet, on the other hand, a computer might be the way to go. The PLC vs. PC debate has been going on for a long time. More often though it doesn't come down to an "either or" situation but involves a mix of technologies.
PLC vs. Relay
When I first started programming PLCs it was still questionable if a PLC was necessary over just relay control. With PLC prices going down, size shrinking, and performance of PLCs improving over the years this has become less of a battle. Yet the designer has to ask themselves if a PLC is really overkill for their application. Some questions should be asked.
A dedicated controller is a single instrument that is dedicated to controlling one parameter such as a PID controller measuring a temperature for heating control. They have the advantages of an all in one package, typically with display and buttons. This can be a very good thing to use in simple applications. A PLC these days can compete price wise and functionally with these controllers especially if you more then one controller is needed. PLCs offer a greater degree of flexibility too because the can be programmed to handle all sorts of different scenarios.
The PLC vs. PC debate has been going on for years and I'm not going to attempt to give the definitive answer. They both have their pros and cons. What often happens is that the two are used for their strengths in different parts of the factory.
 PLC PC Environment The PLC was specifically designed for harsh conditions with electrical noise, magnetic fields, vibration, extreme temperatures or humidity. Common PCs are not designed for harsh environments. Industrial PCs are available but cost more. Ease of Use By design PLCs are friendlier to technicians since they are in ladder logic and have easy connections. Operating systems like Windows are common. Connecting I/O to the PC is not always as easy. Flexibility PLCs in rack form are easy to exchange and add parts. They are designed for modularity and expansion. Typical PCs are limited by the number of cards they can accommodate and are not easily expandable. Speed PLCs execute a single program in sequential order. The have better ability to handle events in real time. PCs, by design, are meant to handle simultaneous tasks. They have difficulty handling real time events. Reliability A PLC never crashes over long periods of time. ("Never" may not be the right word but its close enough to be true.) A PC locking up and crashing is frequent. Programming languages Languages are typically fixed to ladder logic, function block or structured text. A PC is very flexible and powerful in what to use for programming. Data management Memory is limited in its ability to store a lot of data. This is where the PC excels because of it's hard drive. Any long term data storage, history and trending is best done on a PC. Cost Just too hard to compare pricing with so many variables like I/O counts, hardware needed, programming software, etc.
Hybrids of PLC/PCs are common now (e.g. WinPLC). This type of hardware tries to mix the two platforms using the strengths of both. So the CPU might be able to run Windows CE or Linux in a rack that can accept common I/O modules.
For some manufacturers the choice these days is coming down to buy a PLC or make your own. The benefits of PLCs have become so widely known that manufacturers looking to cut cost can engineer their own solutions and build them more cost effectively. An example of this is the Divelbiss "PLC on a Chip" with the accompanying EZ LADDER programming software.
Definition of a PLC
What is a PLC?
What is a PLC?
A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC for short, is simply a special computer device used for industrial control systems. They are used in many industries such as oil refineries, manufacturing lines, conveyor systems and so on. Where ever there is a need to control devices the PLC provides a flexible way to "softwire" the components together.
The basic units have a CPU (a computer processor) that is dedicated to run one program that monitors a series of different inputs and logically manipulates the outputs for the desired control. They are meant to be very flexible in how they can be programmed while also providing the advantages of high reliability (no program crashes or mechanical failures), compact and economical over traditional control systems.
A Simple Example
Consider something as simple as a switch that turns on a light. In this system with a flick of the switch the light would turn on or off. Beyond that though there is no more control. If your boss came along and said I want that light to turn on thirty seconds after the switch has been flipped, then you would need to buy a timer and do some rewiring. So it is time, labor and money for any little change.
A PLC Saves the Day
Now consider the same device with a PLC in the middle. The switch is fed as an input into the PLC and the light is controlled by a PLC output. Implementing a delay in this system is easy since all that needs to be changed is the program in the PLC to use a delay timer.
This is a rather simple example but in a larger system with many switchs and lights (and a host of other devices) all interacting with each other this kind of flexibility is not only nice but imperitive. Hopefully a light bulb has now turned on over your head.
How PLCs Work
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a personal computer though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
- The power supply and rack
- The central processing unit (CPU)
- The input/output (I/O) section
The Power Supply and Rack
So let’s start off by removing all our modules which leaves us with a naked PLC with only the power supply and the rack.
The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more modules. Like a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which allows the cards to communicate with the CPU. The power supply plugs into the rack as well and supplies a regulated DC power to other modules that plug into the rack. The most popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or 24 VDC sources.
The CPU
The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in the slot beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs based on the complexity needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating modes. In programming mode it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the process.
Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program over and over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time and involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based on these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly. The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000th of a second). The memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the I/O and providing a means to store values.
I/O System
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the devices connect.
There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the type of input or output so the CPU can use it for it’s logic. It's simply a matter of determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the appropriate cards and then addressing them correctly in the CPUs program.
Inputs
Input devices can consist of digital or analog devices. A digital input card handles discrete devices which
give a signal that is either on or off such as a pushbutton, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card converts a voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be anywhere from 0 to 20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be understood by the CPU. Examples of analog devices are pressure transducers, flow meters and thermocouples for temperature readings
Outputs
Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output card either turns a device on or off such as lights, LEDs, small motors, and relays. An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU to it’s real world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0-10 VDC or 4-20mA and are used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure regulators and position controls.
Programming a PLC
In these modern times a PC with specially dedicated software from the PLC manufacturer is used to program a PLC. The most widely used form of programming is called ladder logic. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of words, to emulate the real world relay logic control, which is a relic from the PLC's history. These symbols are interconnected by lines to indicate the flow of current through relay like contacts and coils. Over the years the number of symbols has increased to provide a high level of functionality.
The completed program looks like a ladder but in actuality it represents an electrical circuit. The left and right rails indicate the positive and ground of a power supply. The rungs represent the wiring between the different components which in the case of a PLC are all in the virtual world of the CPU. So if you can understand how basic electrical circuits work then you can understand ladder logic.
In this simplest of examples a digital input (like a button connected to the first position on the card) when it is pressed turns on an output which energizes an indicator light.
The completed program is downloaded from the PC to the PLC using a special cable that’s connected to the front of the CPU. The CPU is then put into run mode so that it can start scanning the logic and controlling the outputs.
The Birth of the PLC
The Original Challenge
The early history of the PLC is fascinating. Imagine if you will a fifty foot long cabinet filled with relays whose function in life is to control a machine. Wires run in and out of the system as the relays click and clack to the logic. Now imagine there is a problem or a small design change and you have to figure it all out on paper and then shut down the machine, move some wires, add some relays, debug and do it all over again. Imagine the labor involved in the simplest of changes. This is the problem that faced the engineers at the Hydra-matic division of GM motors in the late 1960's.
Fortunately for them the prospect of computer control was rapidly becoming a reality for large corporations as themselves. So in 1968 the GM engineers developed a design criteria for a "standard machine controller". This early model simply had to replace relays but it also had to be:
- A solid-state system that was flexible like a computer but priced competitively with a like kind relay logic system.
- Easily maintained and programmed in line with the all ready accepted relay ladder logic way of doing things.
- It had to work in an industrial environment with all it's dirt, moisture, electromagnetism and vibration.
- It had to be modular in form to allow for easy exchange of components and expandability.
The Race is On
This was a tall order in 1968 but four companies took on the challenge.
- Information Instruments, Inc. (fully owned by Allen-Bradley a year later).
- Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)
- Century Detroit
- Bedford Associates
Not to be outdone, the powerhouse Allen-Bradley (all ready known for it's rheostats, relays and motor controls) purchased Information Instruments in 1969 and began development on this new technology. The early models (PDQ-II and PMC) were deemed to be too large and complex. By 1971 Odo Struger and Ernst Dummermuth had begun to develop a new concept known as the Bulletin 1774 PLC which would make them successful for years to come. Allen-Bradley termed their new device the "Programmable Logic Controller" (patent #3,942,158) over the then accepted term "Programmable Controller". The PLC terminology became the industry standard especially when PC became associated with personal computers.
PLCs Versus Other Types of Controls
A PLC is not the only choice for controlling a process. Sticking with only basic relays may be of a benefit depending upon your application. Yet, on the other hand, a computer might be the way to go. The PLC vs. PC debate has been going on for a long time. More often though it doesn't come down to an "either or" situation but involves a mix of technologies.
PLC vs. Relay
When I first started programming PLCs it was still questionable if a PLC was necessary over just relay control. With PLC prices going down, size shrinking, and performance of PLCs improving over the years this has become less of a battle. Yet the designer has to ask themselves if a PLC is really overkill for their application. Some questions should be asked.
- Is there a need for flexibility in control logic changes? Will there be frequent control logic changes? Will there be a need for rapid modification?
A lot companies believe they will never change a design but more often then not ideas and goals do change and modifications will need to be made. Do you want to do that in hardware (relays) or software (PLC)? - Must similar control logic be used on different machines?
It's so much easier to download a program then build another panel. - Is there a need for future growth?
A PLC can easily accept a new module in a slot or get an expansion base. - Is there a need for high reliability?
PLCs are seen as more robust over individual components. - Is downtime a concern?
Any change or troubleshooting on a relay system means the system might have to go offline. Changes in a PLC can often be made online with no downtime. - Are space requirements important?
Based on the number of relays a PLC can be a real space saver. - Are increased capability and output required?
PLCs can be faster then their mechanical counterparts. - Are there data collection and communications required?
Only possible with a PLC or computer. - What are the overall costs?
There's a certain price point comparison but in these days it's very low in favor of a PLC.
PLC vs. Dedicated Controller
PLC vs. PC (Personal Computers)
 PLC PC Environment The PLC was specifically designed for harsh conditions with electrical noise, magnetic fields, vibration, extreme temperatures or humidity. Common PCs are not designed for harsh environments. Industrial PCs are available but cost more. Ease of Use By design PLCs are friendlier to technicians since they are in ladder logic and have easy connections. Operating systems like Windows are common. Connecting I/O to the PC is not always as easy. Flexibility PLCs in rack form are easy to exchange and add parts. They are designed for modularity and expansion. Typical PCs are limited by the number of cards they can accommodate and are not easily expandable. Speed PLCs execute a single program in sequential order. The have better ability to handle events in real time. PCs, by design, are meant to handle simultaneous tasks. They have difficulty handling real time events. Reliability A PLC never crashes over long periods of time. ("Never" may not be the right word but its close enough to be true.) A PC locking up and crashing is frequent. Programming languages Languages are typically fixed to ladder logic, function block or structured text. A PC is very flexible and powerful in what to use for programming. Data management Memory is limited in its ability to store a lot of data. This is where the PC excels because of it's hard drive. Any long term data storage, history and trending is best done on a PC. Cost Just too hard to compare pricing with so many variables like I/O counts, hardware needed, programming software, etc.
Hybrids of PLC/PCs are common now (e.g. WinPLC). This type of hardware tries to mix the two platforms using the strengths of both. So the CPU might be able to run Windows CE or Linux in a rack that can accept common I/O modules.
Off the Shelf vs. Build Your Own
